Great Travel News Syndicate

Asteroid impacts on the Earth may have scattered more life-bearing debris to Mars, Jupiter or beyond our Solar System than previously thought.

Vast computer simulations of debris thrown up from Earth impacts show 100 times more particles end up on Mars than prior studies have shown.

The highest-energy impacts drive debris all the way to Jupiter, which hosts two moons that may be amenable to life.

Only the hardiest of Earth's organisms could have survived the trip, however.

The study considers a reverse of the "panspermia" idea that occupies much of meteoritic research – namely, that the precursors to life, or life itself, may have been delivered by an impact on the early Earth.

Equally, however, Earth impacts may throw up debris that could be loaded with microbes or small, hardy organisms like water bears – which have already demonstrated the ability to survive the harsh conditions of space.

Other simulations have tackled the probability that Earth impacts seeded life in the Solar System, suggesting that Earth debris could even have made it to Saturn's moon Titan.

Now, Mauricio Reyes-Ruiz of the National Autonomous University of Mexico and his colleagues have carried out the largest-ever simulations of the process, each of more than 10,000 particles being ejected from the Earth's surface and described in their as-yet unpublished manuscript.

Each of the five simulations considered impacts of varying violence, with the particles shooting off at ever-increasing speeds.

The particles were then allowed to escape the Earth's gravitational pull and then move according to the gravity of the Sun and the planets for 30,000 simulated years.

When considering the fraction of particles that eventually collide with Venus and the Moon, or simply spiral back toward the Earth, the team's results are consistent with prior simulations.

But they show a marked increase in the number that make it to Mars – and published the first likelihood that an impact particle would make it to Jupiter: a chance of just 0.05% when the particles are launched with a speed of 16.4km per second.

Steinn Sigurdsson, an astrophysicist at Pennsylvania State University in the US, is also carrying out simulations of these "impact ejecta", and his colleague Rachel Worth presented preliminary results at January's American Astronomical Society meeting suggesting similar impact fractions may result.

"Previous studies are definitely 'lower bounds'," Dr Sigurdsson told BBC News, explaining that new limits on impacts come not from new physics, but from better computers.

"They were computationally limited, in the sense that you could only do so much with what you could do back then. The numbers [in the new study] are in the right ballpark. We're getting even higher impact rates than they are, because we're going for much longer. They're doing a large number of particles for short times; we're going to 10 million years."

The real question is whether any ejecta will carry living cargo that can fulfil the "panspermia" hypothesis, but Dr Sigurdsson says that evidence of the hardiness of life has already been found closer to home.

"There are viable bacterial spores that have been found that are 40 million years old on Earth – and we know they're very hardened to radiation."

A new study deals a blow to the idea that most European men are descended from farmers who migrated from the Near East 5,000-10,000 years ago.

Archaeological finds show that modern humans first settled in Europe from about 40,000 years ago – during a time known as the Palaeolithic.

These people survived an Ice Age some 20,000 years ago by retreating to relatively warm refuges in the south of the continent, before expanding into northern Europe again when the ice melted.

But just a few thousand years after Europe had been resettled by these hunter-gatherers, the continent underwent momentous cultural change. Farmers spread westwards from the area that is now Turkey, bringing with them a new economy and way of life.

The extent to which modern Europeans are descended from these early farmers versus the indigenous hunter-gatherers who settled the continent thousands of years previously is a matter of heated debate.

The results vary depending on the genetic markers studied and are subject to differing interpretations.

The latest study focused on the Y chromosome – a package of DNA which is passed down more or less unchanged from father to son.

The Y chromosomes carried by people today can be classified into different types, or lineages, which – to some extent – reflect their geographical origins.

More than 100 million European men carry a type called R-M269, so identifying when this genetic group spread out is vital to understanding the peopling of Europe.

R-M269 is most common in western Europe, reaching frequencies of 90% or more in Spain, Ireland and Wales.

But while this type reaches its highest distribution on the Atlantic fringe, Patricia Balaresque and colleagues at the University of Leicester published a paper in 2010 showing that the genetic diversity of R-M269 increases as one moves east – reaching a peak in Anatolia (modern Turkey).

Genetic diversity is used as a measure of age; lineages that have been around for a long time accumulate more diversity. So this principle can be used to estimate the age of a population.

When the Leicester team estimated how old R-M269 was in different populations across Europe, they found the age ranges were more compatible with an expansion in Neolithic times (between 5,000 and 10,000 years ago).

The team's conclusions received support from papers published in August 2010 and in June this year. But one study which appeared last year backed the idea of a more ancient, Palaeolithic origin for R-M269.

Now, a team including Cristian Capelli and George Busby at Oxford University have explored the question.

Their results, based on a sample of more than 4,500 men from Europe and western Asia, showed no geographical trends in the diversity of R-M269. Such trends would be expected if the lineage had expanded from Anatolia with Neolithic farmers.

Furthermore, they suggest that some of the markers on the Y chromosome are less reliable than others for estimating the ages of genetic lineages. On these grounds, they argue that current analytical tools are unsuitable for dating the expansion of R-M269.

Indeed, Dr Capelli and his team say the problem extends to other studies of Y-chromosome lineages: dates based on the analysis of conventional DNA markers may have been "systematically underestimated", they write in Proceedings B.

But Dr Capelli stressed that his study could not answer the question of when the ubiquitous R-M269 expanded in Europe, although his lab is carrying out more work on the subject.

"At the moment it's not possible to claim anything about the age of this lineage," he told BBC News, "I would say that we are putting the ball back in the middle of the field."

Co-author Dr Jim Wilson from the University of Edinburgh explained: "Estimating a date at which an ancestral lineage originated is an interesting application of genetics, but unfortunately it is beset with difficulties."

The increasing frequency of R-M269 towards western Europe had long been seen by some researchers as an indication that Palaeolithic European genes survived in this region – alongside other clues.

A more recent origin for R-M269 than the Neolithic is still possible. But researchers point out that after the advent of agriculture, populations in Europe exploded, meaning that it would have been more difficult for incoming migrants to displace local people.

Paul.Rincon-INTERNET@bbc.co.uk

The mysteries of an unusual boulder at a Norfolk stately home have been solved, thanks to geological detective work by the University of East Anglia.

The boulder at Oxburgh Hall, near Swaffham, is composed of hundreds of fossilised oyster shells and is known locally as the Roman Oyster Stone.

Professor Julian Andrews from UEA has been investigating the rock.

He found it dated back 165 million years and had been transported from 60 miles away near Sleaford, Lincolnshire.

Professor Andrews from the university's school of environmental sciences was called in by the National Trust, which owns the 15th Century moated manor house.

He dated the boulder in the hall's gardens by looking at the species of oyster fossils within it.

He said it dated from the Middle Jurassic age and could more accurately be described as a "roamin' stone".

The closest boulders which are similar in structure can be found exposed in a narrow band in the East Midlands, between Northampton and Lincoln.

There are known oyster-bearing beds in the Grantham and Sleaford area.

"It is highly likely the boulder originated from hereabouts and this tells geologists it was moved by ice flowing broadly south-east, crossing modern day Fenland in the Spalding-Wisbech area," he said.

"The local bedrock geology in this part of West Norfolk is cretaceous chalk, about 90 million years old – a much younger geological unit than the boulder."

He said glaciers often picked up fragments of the bedrock over which they flowed.

"As the ice flows, the boulders are transported and then dumped when the ice melts," he said.

"A boulder which is moved from its place of origin and then dumped, perhaps miles away, often on quite unrelated bedrock, is known as an 'erratic'."

The Oxburgh Hall stone, which is about 1m (3ft) long and 50cm (1.5ft) across, was dredged from the nearby River Wissey about 50 years ago.

Teresa Squires, National Trust property manager for Oxburgh Hall, said: "It is now officially the oldest artefact at Oxburgh and we hope it will be of great interest to our visitors."

It is being billed as the iPhone App that will change the way you watch football, and the man behind it is very much hoping it does.

Colm McMullan came up with the idea of taking all the statistics that are shown at the end of a football match and putting them into a smartphone app.

People can use it to analyse the data, track every pass, see how a player's influence changes through the game, or compare teams or players statistics.

The idea is that it will resolve those football pub fights, or be the perfect aid to anyone planning a fantasy football team.

The app market is growing fast, with new apps springing up each day promising to revolutionise the way something or other is done. But Mr McMullan has picked his business path very carefully.

Originally from Randalstown, in County Antrim, he left a high-flying job with Microsoft to go it alone and try and turn his bright idea into a reality.

Total Football was launched for the world cup in 2010, but when the company that provides the data – Opta – saw how well the app was selling they decided to get in on the act.

They worked in partnership with Colm and had a follow-up app running for the Champions League last season. Now the big-guns are joining in.

This week the next app has been launched under the banner of football magazine FourFourTwo. It's a three-way partnership between the magazine, Mr McMullan, and Opta, and they all get a split of the revenue.

"FourFourTwo provide the kind of brand recognition and audience marketing that I could only dream of", said Colm.

So while others who develop an app either work hard and try and earn a living from it, or sell it and take their cut and run, Colm has chosen a different business route.

Not only does he receive a development fee, but he still gets a cut of the revenue for his app which is now running under a much bigger logo.

According to Colm, with the right execution, a bright idea really can turn into a big business success within the rapidly developing app market.

Snapping an image with your smartphone camera brings more than just a pretty picture if you are blind. With the right app, it can increase your independence.

It is this kind of subjective answer that a piece of software can't give and that a human service can. But humans need sleep. Prof. Bigham admits that, though computer scientists are famed for staying up very late, the 6am to 7am timeslot can be a bit difficult to fill with volunteers from the university.

"It's a really exciting time to work in access technology. A great new resource is that there are people out there on the web. Everyone is connected and we can do a lot of interesting things with it," he said.

"People have been throwing around terms like Human Cloud for a while, and Crowd in the Cloud.

"A lot of work which happened in crowd sourcing before it, took time. Like Wikipedia, it 'took time' for articles to emerge. What's interesting with our service is the realtime aspect of it. Someone out there needs help from the cloud and, in almost real time, they get it."

Users know that it is humans at the other end and this has generated some "crazy" questions that could never have been answered by automated recognition software.

"We had one person who kept taking a picture of the sky and asking 'what is this"' every 5 minutes for a couple of hours," said Prof. Bigham.

"I had no idea what was going on. It also happens we loosely monitor Twitter. Someone later tweeted 'VizWiz just helped me watch the sunset'."

In a perhaps unexpected 21st century development, blind people are now finding they need to learn the basics of photography in order to take advantage of the growing number of text and image recognition services on smart phones.

How do you hold the camera up? And how close do you put it to the object you want to know more about? Angles, perspective, distance and light, are concepts that don't come naturally to people who have never been able to see.

Steve Nutt is an IT consultant in Hertfordshire who has been blind since birth. It took him two weeks to master how to frame a shot which he does in a very functional way, quite different to how sighted people would do it.

He explains: "If you're taking a picture of, say, a tin, you need to make sure you get the whole tin in there. I would stand it up so you get all the sides with the label and snap from about 8 inches above it.

"If you are taking a picture of some text on a piece of paper, centralise the camera and lift it up about ten inches. Keep your hand dead straight and dead still when taking the image.

"You have to also bear in mind the size of the thing you're taking the picture of. the smaller the thing, the closer you need to be to it … I'd be lying if I said it was easy."

Jeff Bigham's team sees the results of the camerawork coming from users like Steve. Not everyone gets it right with their first shot.

"We definitely get a few attempts sometimes. It's not always easy to frame the photos. Sometimes the centre is out of the photo. if they're asking what is on a can of soup label, we generally say 'we can't tell what this is, the label is likely on the other side of the can'."

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